Propolis is one of the most fascinating substances created by bees. Also known as bee glue, it is a complex mixture of plant resins, wax, essential oils, pollen, and dozens of biologically active compounds. Bees collect resins mainly from the buds and bark of trees such as poplar, birch, willow, chestnut, and conifers, and process them with their own enzymes. The result is a material with exceptional protective properties.

Why Do Bees Produce Propolis?

A honey bee colony lives at a temperature of around 35°C and high humidity – conditions that are ideal for the development of bacteria, molds, and other microorganisms. Despite this, the hive remains remarkably clean. One of the main reasons is propolis.

Bees use it to:

• seal unwanted openings and cracks;
• coat the inner walls of the hive;
• restrict the growth of bacteria, fungi, and viruses;
• isolate foreign bodies that cannot be removed from the hive.

If, for example, a mouse enters the hive and dies inside, the bees are unable to carry it out. Instead, they completely cover it with a thick layer of propolis. In this way, decomposition is greatly inhibited and the colony remains protected.

Propolis – More Than a Building Material

For bees, propolis is not merely an adhesive but a protective system. It creates an unfavorable environment for the development of many microorganisms and helps maintain the biological balance inside the hive.

This principle applies to nature as a whole. All higher organisms constantly coexist with enormous numbers of microorganisms. When natural defense mechanisms weaken, microorganisms may begin to proliferate uncontrollably and cause disease.

In this sense, propolis is an impressive example of how nature has found an effective solution to one of the oldest biological problems – controlling the microscopic world.

The Wealth of Natural Chemistry

More than 300 different chemical compounds have been identified in propolis. Among the most important are:

• flavonoids;
• phenolic acids and their esters;
• aromatic resins;
• terpenes;
• essential oils;
• waxes;
• trace elements;
• vitamins and other natural antioxidants.

The exact composition is never identical. It depends on the plants growing around the apiary, the season, climate, and geographical region. This is precisely why no two samples of propolis are completely alike.

Propolis and Humans

For centuries, people have used propolis for various conditions. Modern scientific research indicates that it possesses a complex range of biological properties, including antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activity. Its possible effects on tissue repair and the local immune response are also being studied.

It is important to understand that propolis is not a cure for every disease. It does not replace medical diagnosis or treatment. However, as a natural product, it is of considerable scientific interest and is widely used in dietary supplements, cosmetics, dentistry, and various everyday-care products.

A Broader Perspective

The better an organism is able to control harmful microorganisms, the greater its chances of remaining healthy. Bees arrived at this solution millions of years ago through propolis.

That is why propolis may be regarded as a symbol of natural protection. It does not create life, but it helps preserve it. It is precisely this ability to restrict the development of unwanted microorganisms that makes it one of the most valuable substances nature has entrusted to bees.

Propolis – The Plants’ Weapon, Perfected by Bees

Viewed through a microscope, the Earth looks completely different. The world does not belong only to humans, animals, and plants. An enormous part of living matter consists of microorganisms – bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other microscopic forms of life. Between them and higher organisms, a continuous struggle has been taking place for hundreds of millions of years.

For microorganisms, every plant and every animal represents a potential source of nutrients. Without protective mechanisms, the organic world would be broken down far faster than it could regenerate.

Plants cannot run away from their enemies. Instead, they have developed sophisticated chemical defenses. They synthesize resins, terpenes, essential oils, waxes, phenolic substances, phytoncides, flavonoids, pigments, and many other compounds with antimicrobial activity. These substances restrict the growth of bacteria and fungi on leaves, bark, buds, and young shoots.

Bees discovered this natural laboratory long before humans did. They collect the most valuable plant resins and, after processing them with their own enzymes, transform them into propolis – one of the most complex natural mixtures known to science.

In my view, this may be one of the reasons why propolis remains effective today. Unlike an antibiotic, which usually consists of a single molecule or a small number of related molecules, propolis contains hundreds of substances with different mechanisms of action. In addition, its composition continuously changes along with the plant world. While microorganisms adapt to certain protective substances, plants create new combinations. Bees make use of the result of this evolutionary arms race that has continued for millions of years.

It is therefore not surprising that numerous laboratory studies have shown sensitivity of certain antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including MRSA, to different types of propolis. This does not mean that propolis is a substitute for antibiotics. It does mean, however, that nature continues to offer solutions that science is still investigating.

Over more than four decades of working with bee products, I have repeatedly observed beneficial effects of propolis in difficult-to-heal wounds, superficial burns, herpes, inflammation in the oral cavity, gingivitis, periodontal problems, cheilitis, certain forms of leukoplakia, as well as as an adjunct in a number of other conditions. These observations do not replace clinical studies, but they are entirely consistent with the known anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties of propolis.

The more we learn about the microscopic world, the clearer it becomes that health is not the absence of microorganisms. It is a state of balance. And propolis is one of the most remarkable natural tools for maintaining that balance.

Unlike many broad-spectrum antibiotics, propolis often demonstrates selectivity. In a number of experimental studies, it inhibits the growth of pathogenic microorganisms considerably more strongly than that of some representatives of the normal microflora. This is probably due to its complex chemical composition and the multiple mechanisms of action that are still being investigated.

An antibiotic often acts like a bomb – it destroys the cause of the infection, but at the same time damages a large part of the beneficial microflora.

Propolis is more like a regulator. It does not sterilize the environment. Instead, it creates conditions in which pathogenic microorganisms find it much more difficult to grow, while the normal microbial ecosystem can be preserved to a considerable extent.

This may explain why:

after prolonged antibiotic use, candidiasis and dysbiosis often occur;

with prolonged use of propolis, such effects are reported significantly less frequently, although this depends on the method of application and does not mean that propolis has no effect whatsoever on microbial composition.

Propolis does not wage war against life. It wages war against chaos. Its task is not to destroy all microorganisms, but to restore the balance between the host organism and the microscopic world. This is precisely why bees have used it for millions of years as a principal guardian of the health of their colony.

Propolis – The Guardian of Life

In nature, a continuous, invisible war is taking place.

On one side are plants, animals, and humans – the world we can see with our eyes. On the other are countless bacteria, fungi, viruses, and other microorganisms – a world that is invisible, yet is everywhere around us and inside us.

If microorganisms remain uncontrolled, they begin to break down all living matter. This is their natural role in nature. Thanks to them, dead organic matter is transformed back into nutrients. But those same microorganisms may also attack living organisms.

That is why, over hundreds of millions of years of evolution, plants have developed their own chemical defenses. They synthesize resins, terpenes, essential oils, waxes, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, phytoncides, natural antioxidants, and dozens of other substances that restrict the development of pathogenic microorganisms.

Bees discovered this natural laboratory long before humans did.

They collect the most valuable plant resins, process them with their own enzymes, and create propolis – one of the most complex and sophisticated natural protective substances.

Nature’s Greatest Pharmacy

A hive is an ideal environment for the development of infections. Its temperature is around 35°C, the humidity is high, and tens of thousands of bees live within a confined space.

Under such conditions, most living organisms would be overwhelmed by bacteria and molds.

But this does not happen.

The reason is propolis.

Bees use it to coat the walls of the hive, seal cracks, disinfect entrances, and isolate every foreign body. If a mouse enters the hive and dies, the bees cannot carry it out. Instead, they cover it with a thick layer of propolis. In this way, decomposition is greatly inhibited and the colony remains protected.

For bees, propolis is not glue.

It is their immune system.

Why Is Propolis So Extraordinary?

Most antibiotics consist of a single active molecule or a small group of related substances.

Propolis is completely different.

Science has identified more than 300 biologically active compounds in it, and with different plant sources the actual number may be even greater. Flavonoids, phenolic acids, terpenes, aromatic resins, essential oils, waxes, trace elements, and dozens of other substances act simultaneously and may enhance one another’s effects.

It is a true natural laboratory.

Why Does Resistance to Propolis Rarely Develop?

Antibiotics are one of the greatest achievements of medicine. However, their widespread use has led to the emergence of bacteria that no longer respond to many drugs.

With propolis, the picture is different.

One probable reason is its exceptionally complex composition. Instead of facing a single molecule, microorganisms are confronted with hundreds of different substances with different mechanisms of action. In addition, the composition of propolis continuously changes along with the plants from which bees collect resins.

This ongoing evolutionary arms race between plants and microorganisms has continued for millions of years.

Bees simply use the best that nature has created.

For this reason, it is no coincidence that a number of scientific studies have demonstrated sensitivity of certain antibiotic-resistant bacteria, including MRSA, to different types of propolis.

Propolis Is Not a Bomb

Most people believe that the best antimicrobial agent is the one that destroys everything.

Nature thinks differently.

Propolis does not seek to destroy life. Its purpose is not to sterilize the world.

Its purpose is to restore balance.

While many antibiotics simultaneously destroy both the cause of an infection and a large proportion of beneficial microflora, a number of studies on propolis suggest a considerably more selective action. This is precisely why interest in it continues to grow.

Propolis does not wage war against microorganisms.

It wages war against chaos.

Five Decades of Observation

For more than 50 years, I have worked with bee products and observed the effects of propolis on a daily basis.

During these years, I have seen its beneficial influence in difficult-to-heal wounds, superficial burns, herpes, inflammation of the oral cavity, gingivitis, periodontal diseases, cheilitis, and a number of other conditions in which the body’s protective mechanisms play a key role.

These observations do not replace medical diagnosis or treatment. They are, however, fully consistent with the accumulated scientific evidence concerning the antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and regenerative activity of propolis.

The Philosophy of Propolis

In my view, propolis is not simply another bee product.

It is a symbol of a fundamental idea.

Life does not survive because it destroys everything around it.

Life survives because it succeeds in maintaining balance.

This is exactly what propolis has been doing for millions of years – in the hive, in nature, and, when used wisely by humans, for the benefit of our own health.

The more we understand propolis, the more we realize that it is not merely a product created by bees.

It is one of nature’s most sophisticated solutions in the continuous struggle against chaos.

Propolis Through the Ages – From Ancient Civilizations to Modern Science

Long before the emergence of modern medicine, people had noticed that bees used a mysterious substance to maintain the health of their colony. Today we call it “propolis,” but its history began more than five thousand years ago.

Ancient Egypt – When Eternity Was the Greatest Goal

The Egyptians believed that the human body had to be preserved even after death. They developed extremely sophisticated mummification techniques using natron, linen wrappings, aromatic resins, oils, and balms.

There is no conclusive evidence that propolis was used in every mummification procedure. It is known, however, that the ancient Egyptians were familiar with bee products and used beeswax and plant resins in embalming. It is entirely possible that propolis was also used in some cases, since it possesses natural preservative and antimicrobial properties.

What is interesting is that the principle is the same as in the hive. When an animal enters a hive and dies inside and the bees cannot remove it, they cover it with propolis and thus restrict decomposition. The ancient Egyptians, without knowing anything about microbes, were likewise searching for ways to slow the destruction of the human body.

Hippocrates – The Father of Medicine

Around the 5th–4th centuries BC, Hippocrates recommended various bee products for the treatment of wounds, ulcers, and inflammation. He is believed to have also used propolis preparations to support the healing of skin injuries and ulcers.

For him, one observation was particularly important – certain natural substances seemed to accelerate recovery and reduce the risk of suppuration.

Today we know that propolis contains numerous substances with antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activity, which to some extent explains the observations made by ancient physicians.

Aristotle – The Philosopher Who Observed Bees

Aristotle had an enormous interest in the life of bees. In his writings, he described the substance that bees collect from plants and use to seal and protect the hive.

Although the chemical composition of propolis was not known at the time, the ancient Greeks already understood that it was not simply glue, but a material with a special purpose.

Galen – Physician of the Roman Empire

In the 2nd century AD, the great physician Galen used various bee products in medical practice. His writings contain recommendations concerning the use of propolis for inflammatory processes, skin disorders, and difficult-to-heal wounds.

His medicine was based primarily on observation. He did not know how microorganisms worked, but he observed that certain natural substances supported healing.

Paracelsus – Nature as the Greatest Pharmacy

In the 16th century, Paracelsus transformed ideas about medicine. According to him, nature contained remedies for almost every disease, and the physician’s task was to discover and use them wisely.

Among valuable natural remedies, he also placed propolis. For him, it was a substance that supported the natural powers of the organism rather than merely suppressing symptoms.

Although modern medicine now has far more advanced methods, Paracelsus’s philosophy remains relevant – nature continues to be an inexhaustible source of new therapeutic molecules.

From Folk Medicine to the Laboratory

For centuries, propolis was used mainly on the basis of practical experience. Only in the 20th and 21st centuries did its systematic scientific investigation begin.

Today, more than 300 chemical compounds have been identified, while scientific publications on propolis number in the thousands. Its antimicrobial, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and immunomodulatory properties are being studied, along with possible applications in dentistry, dermatology, surgery, and other areas of medicine.

Of particular interest is the fact that some antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, including certain strains of MRSA, show sensitivity to different types of propolis. This does not mean that propolis replaces antibiotics, but rather that nature continues to provide molecules and mechanisms worthy of scientific attention.

From the Past to the Future

The history of propolis is a history of human curiosity.

The ancient Egyptians searched for ways to preserve bodies from decomposition.

Hippocrates and Galen used it for wounds and inflammation.

Paracelsus saw it as part of nature’s great healing power.

Today, science is gradually revealing what the great healers of past centuries had actually observed.

The more we learn about propolis, the clearer it becomes that it is not a random substance created by bees. It is the result of millions of years of evolution – the chemical defense of plants, perfected by bees and given to humankind.

The People Who Turned Apitherapy Into a Science

The history of apitherapy was not created by a single person or a single country. It is the result of accumulated observations by physicians, pharmacologists, chemists, biologists, dentists, and beekeepers from different parts of the world.

Some study the chemical composition of propolis, others observe its effects on wounds and infections, while still others attempt to introduce bee products into medical practice.

It is important to distinguish between three different levels:

• effects established in laboratory studies;
• clinical observations in patients;
• traditional use passed down through practical experience.

All three are valuable, but they are not equivalent.

Bulgaria – An Important School in Propolis Research

Dr. Stoimir Mladenov

Dr. Stoimir Mladenov is among the best-known Bulgarian promoters of apitherapy during the second half of the 20th century. He systematized information on the use of honey, propolis, royal jelly, pollen, and bee venom and presented it in accessible language for physicians, beekeepers, and the general public.

One of his important books is “Bee Products – Food and Medicine,” published in 1978. Mladenov regarded apitherapy not as magical treatment but as a complement to medicine, based on the chemical composition and biological activity of bee products.

Prof. Simeon Shkenderov

Prof. Simeon Shkenderov worked on biologically active substances in bee products, particularly the composition and pharmacology of bee venom. Together with Todor Ivanov, he published the book “Bee Products,” which for many years was among the fundamental Bulgarian works in this field.

His research included the separation of bee venom components and the study of their physiological effects. This represented an important step from general discussions about the “healing power of the bee” toward analysis of specific substances and mechanisms.

Dr. Veselin Todorov, Stefan Dryanovski, and Vasil Vasilev

The Bulgarian research team of Veselin Todorov, Stefan Dryanovski, and Vasil Vasilev published a study on the pharmacodynamics of propolis as early as 1968.

Later, Todorov, Vasilev, Manova, and Dryanovski described the use of propolis for oral candidiasis in infants. Other early Bulgarian studies focused on difficult-to-heal wounds. These publications are important historical evidence of early medical interest in propolis in Bulgaria, although their methodology does not always meet all the requirements of modern clinical trials.

Prof. Vassya Bankova

Prof. DSc Vassya Bankova is among the most internationally recognized contemporary scientists working on the chemistry of propolis. Her contribution is primarily fundamental rather than therapeutic.

She and her colleagues investigate:

• the botanical origin of different types of propolis;
• their chemical diversity;
• the relationship between composition and biological activity;
• the challenges involved in standardizing propolis;
• differences between European, tropical, and other geographical types.

Prof. Bankova’s work demonstrates why propolis cannot be treated as a substance with one constant formula. Its composition depends on local vegetation, and different types of propolis therefore have to be characterized using chemical markers.

Prof. Milena Popova and Assoc. Prof. Blagorodka Trusheva

Milena Popova and Blagorodka Trusheva are part of the contemporary Bulgarian school of natural-products chemistry. Together with Prof. Bankova, they participate in research on new types of propolis, their botanical sources, and the compounds responsible for their biological activity.

These scientists do not claim that propolis is identical everywhere. On the contrary, their work demonstrates its enormous chemical diversity and the need for each type to be analyzed and standardized separately.

Romania – Tradition, Clinical Practice, and New Bee Products

Dr. Stefan Stangaciu

Dr. Stefan Stangaciu is one of the most active contemporary promoters and educators in the field of apitherapy. He organizes congresses, courses, and international training programs and for many years has led Romanian and German apitherapy organizations.

Stangaciu has developed a comprehensive approach in which bee products are combined with phytotherapy, nutrition, and other complementary methods. His major contribution lies in the systematization, teaching, and international promotion of apitherapy.

A distinction must nevertheless be made between his extensive practical experience and results demonstrated through large randomized clinical trials.

Nicolae V. Ilieșiu and Apilarnil

Romania is also associated with the development of “apilarnil” – a product obtained from drone larvae and the contents of drone brood cells.

The beekeeper Nicolae V. Ilieșiu began developing the product during the 20th century. The name “apilarnil” was formed from parts of words associated with the bee, the larva, and the name of its creator. The product was subsequently studied for its nutritional composition and possible biological activity.

Apilarnil is an interesting example of how a practical beekeeping observation can give rise to a new field, although therapeutic claims concerning it must likewise be evaluated according to the quality of the individual studies.

Russia and the Former Soviet Union

Prof. Naum Petrovich Ioirish

Naum Petrovich Ioirish is one of the best-known names in Soviet apitherapy. He was a physician and author of books compiling information on honey, propolis, bee venom, royal jelly, and other bee products.

Among his well-known works are “Bees and People,” “The Healing Properties of Honey and Bee Venom,” and publications devoted specifically to propolis.

Ioirish contributed greatly to popularizing apitherapy among physicians and the general public. He drew attention to the phytoncidal activity of propolis and the practical use of bee products in various diseases. Some of the therapeutic regimens he described were based on clinical observations available at the time, but not all have been tested according to today’s standards of evidence-based medicine.

Early Research on Bee Venom

In the Soviet Union, numerous experimental and clinical observations were conducted on bee venom in neuralgia, rheumatic diseases, and inflammatory conditions. Researchers such as N. M. Artyomov contributed to the study of its physiological and pharmacological effects.

These studies helped establish bee venom as more than simply a cause of pain and allergy, showing it to be a complex mixture of melittin, apamin, enzymes, and other active substances. This, however, does not eliminate the risk of severe allergic reactions and anaphylaxis.

Serbia and the Countries of the Former Yugoslavia

Dr. Zorica Plavšić

Dr. Zorica Plavšić is a Serbian physician, specialist in pulmonary diseases, and active organizer in the field of apitherapy. She is among the founders and leaders of Serbia’s first international medical association for apitherapy – ApiMed Serbia.

Her work focuses on the use of bee products as complementary measures, the training of medical professionals, and building links between practical apitherapy and scientific research.

Dr. Peter Kapš

The Slovenian physician Dr. Peter Kapš, a specialist in internal medicine and pulmonary diseases, is the author of a monograph on treatment with bee products. He presents honey, propolis, pollen, royal jelly, and other products as possible complementary agents, particularly in respiratory and general health-support programs.

Although he is not Serbian, his work forms part of the broader apitherapeutic tradition of the former Yugoslavia.

Cuba – Tropical Propolis as a Distinct Chemical World

The Cuban school is particularly interesting because Cuban propolis differs substantially from European propolis.

Brown, red, and yellow types of propolis have been described in Cuba. Brown Cuban propolis is associated with the presence of polyprenylated benzophenones, among which nemorosone has attracted particular attention.

Prof. Osmani Cuesta-Rubio

Osmani Cuesta-Rubio is among the important Cuban researchers studying the chemical composition and botanical origin of propolis. His work has helped distinguish the different Cuban types and identify their characteristic chemical compounds.

Lianet Monzote and Colleagues

Lianet Monzote and her colleagues have investigated the antimicrobial activity of numerous Cuban propolis samples. They compare extracts from different regions and different chemical types against bacteria, fungi, and other microorganisms.

These studies demonstrate not only that Cuban propolis possesses biological activity, but also that this activity depends on its composition and geographical origin.

Yasel Frión-Herrera and G. L. P. Andreu

These researchers and their teams study the effects of brown Cuban propolis and nemorosone on cell cultures. Effects have been observed on cell viability, the cell cycle, and mechanisms of programmed cell death in certain tumor cell lines.

These are preclinical laboratory findings. They do not mean that propolis is a proven cancer treatment in humans, but they identify interesting molecules for future pharmacological research.

Turkey – Between Traditional Healing and University-Based Apitherapy

Dr. Ali Timuçin Atayoğlu

Dr. Ali Timuçin Atayoğlu is among the leading organizers of contemporary Turkish apitherapy. He is associated with medical education and the development of a university apitherapy center in Turkey.

His contribution is primarily organizational and educational – integrating apitherapy into the framework of traditional and complementary medicine, training physicians, and encouraging scientific research.

Hüseyin Ceylan

Hüseyin Ceylan is a Turkish beekeeper from the İzmir region who has developed practices involving the inhalation of air from beehives. He presents the method as a complement rather than a substitute for conventional medicine.

His case is an example of a folk and practical healer rather than of a clinically proven therapy. Turkish authorities do not officially recognize beehive-air inhalation as an established medical method, and the reported benefits are based mainly on personal observations and visitors’ accounts.

Turkey also has strong academic groups studying the chemical composition, antimicrobial activity, and quality of local propolis. These scientists should be distinguished from practitioners who offer specific procedures without sufficient clinical validation.

And What About Leonardo da Vinci?

Leonardo da Vinci observed insects, plants, wing movement, air currents, and an enormous variety of natural phenomena. His surviving drawings and notebooks contain studies of insects and flight.

However, there is currently no reliable historical source showing that Leonardo studied propolis, described its therapeutic action, or conducted observations on its use by bees.

For this reason, he should not be included among the historical researchers of propolis merely because he was a great observer of nature.

A more accurate statement would be:

Leonardo da Vinci studied insects, plants, and the mechanisms of flight, but no reliable observations by him specifically concerning propolis are known.

Only part of his notebooks has survived, so it cannot be ruled out entirely that he may have observed bees. But without documentary evidence, possibility should not be turned into historical fact.

The Man We Should More Appropriately Mention – François Huber

When discussing the early scientific observation of bees and propolis, a more appropriate name is that of the Swiss naturalist François Huber.

Although blind, Huber conducted exceptionally precise observations with the assistance of his collaborator François Burnens. He studied bee behavior, the origin of wax, reproduction, and the use of propolis.

Huber belongs less to the history of propolis therapy than to the history of the scientific understanding of how bees collect and use propolis.

Practice Provided the Questions; Science Seeks the Answers

The development of apitherapy has not followed a straight path.

Folk healers and beekeepers were the first to observe the effects of propolis on wounds, inflammation, and infections. Physicians began to describe the results. Chemists isolated the substances. Microbiologists tested their effects on microorganisms. Today, molecular biology investigates their mechanisms inside the cell.

Neither practical experience should be ignored, nor should every favorable observation immediately be declared a proven treatment.

The true strength of apitherapy lies in the union between long-term observation and rigorous scientific verification.